Rhetorical and Stylistic Devices

Alliteration, Anlautreim, Stabreim

Alliteration – repetition of initial consonant sound

This refers to two or more words in a sentence that start with the same consonant sound. For maximum impact, these words appear next to each other. The repetition of the initial sound fixes the phrase in the reader’s mind, which helps emphasise the sentence.

Examples:

guter Geistgood spirit

schöner Scheinbeautiful appearance

Land der Dichter und Denkerland of poets and thinkers

Milch macht müde Männer muntermilk revives tired men

Note: Repetition of initial consonant sounds means that only the sound must be the same, not the consonants themselves.

Examples:

kurioses Quizcurious quiz

philosophierender Fernfahrerphilosophical long-distance driver

coole Kistecool crate/car

If two words in a row start with the same consonant but have a different initial sound, then it is not classed as alliteration.

Examples:

schwarzer Sumpfblack bog

cleverer Chileneclever Chilean

Allusion, Anspielung

Allusion – indirect reference to a person, event, or work of literature

This stylistic device is used to explain or clarify a complex problem. Allusion works best if you keep it short and refer to something well-known, e.g.:

• famous people
• historical events
• (Greek) mythology
• literature
• the Bible

If the audience is familiar with the event or person, they will also know background and context. Thus, just a few words are enough to create a certain picture (or an entire scene) in the mind of the reader/listener. Some advantages of this include:

• no need for lengthy explanations
• the reader/listener is encouraged to get involved and think actively
• the message is more memorable

Examples:

Droht den USA ein zweites Vietnam?Is a second Vietnam threatening the USA?

allusion to the Vietnam War

Bestimmte Programme könnten Trojaner enthalten.Certain programmes might contain Trojans.

allusion to the story of the Trojan Horse from Greek mythology

Many allusions to historical events, mythology, or the Bible have become idiomatic expressions.

Examples:

sein Waterloo erlebento experience his Waterloo

allusion to Napoleon’s defeat at the Battle of Waterloo

seine Hände in Unschuld waschento wash his hands of the matter

allusion to Pontius Pilate, who sentenced Jesus to death and then washed his hands)

alt wie Methusalemas old as Methuselah

allusion to Joseph’s grandfather Methuselah, who lived to be 969 years old; Old Testament

mit Argusaugen über etwas wachento watch something with Argus-eyes

allusion to the many-eyed giant Argus from Greek mythology, who guarded Zeus’ lover Io

Anapher

Anaphora – successive clauses or sentences start with the same word(s)

The same word or phrase is used to begin successive clauses or sentences. Thus, the reader’s/listener’s attention is drawn directly to the message of the sentence.

Example:

Deutschland liegt in der Mitte Europas und ist der ideale Standort, um die Nachfrage der anliegenden Länder zu bedienen.Germany is located in the centre of Europe and is in the ideal position to satisfy the demands of adjacent countries.

Deutschland verfügt über eine glänzende Infrastruktur und über hervorragend ausgebildete und hochmotivierte Arbeitnehmerinnen und Arbeitnehmer.Germany has at its disposal a brilliant infrastructure and superbly educated, highly-motivated workers.

Aber: Deutschland hat ein massives Kostenproblem.*But: Germany has a massive cost problem.

Anaphora is often used in conjunction with parallelism or climax.

* Source: speech by Federal Minister of Economics and Labour Wolfgang Clement at the opening of the World Conference of BfAI Correspondents on the subject “Global, more global, world champion exporter: how much international business is allowed?” August 30, 2004 in Berlin, Germany

Antithese

Antithesis – contrasting relationship between two ideas

Antithesis emphasises the contrast between two ideas. The structure of the phrases is usually similar, in order to draw the reader's/listener's attention directly to the contrast.

Examples:

Ein kleiner Schritt für einen Menschen, aber ein großer Schritt für die Menschheit.One small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. (Neil Armstrong)

Irren ist menschlich - vergeben göttlich.To err is human, to forgive divine. (Alexander Pope)

Hyperbel

Hyperbole – deliberate exaggeration

Used sparingly, hyperbole effectively draws the attention to a message that you want to emphasise.

Examples:

Ich bin so hungrig, ich könnte ein ganzes Pferd verschlingen.I’m so hungry I could eat a horse.

Ich hab dir das schon tausendmal gesagt.I’ve told you that a thousand times.

opposite: → Abschwächung/Untertreibung

Hypophora

Hypophora – questions raised and answered by the author/speaker

The author/speaker raises a question and then answers it. Hypophora is used to get the audience’s attention and pique their curiosity. Often, the question is raised in the first sentence and answered over the course of the paragraph. Hypophora can also be used to introduce a new area of discussion.

Example:

Was bedeutet das für deutsche Unternehmen? Sind wir für den globalen Wettbewerb gerüstet?What does this mean for German businesses? Are we equipped for global competition?

Deutschland liegt in der Mitte Europas und ist der ideale Standort, um die Nachfrage der anliegenden Länder zu bedienen.*Germany is located in the centre of Europe and is in the ideal position to satisfy the demands of adjacent countries.

See also: → Rhetorische Frage

* Source: speech by Federal Minister of Economics and Labour Wolfgang Clement at the opening of the World Conference of BfAI Correspondents on the subject “Global, more global, world champion exporter: how much international business is allowed?” August 30, 2004 in Berlin

Litotes

Litotes – a type of understatement

Litotes is a form of understatement which uses the negated opposite of a word to weaken or soften a message.

Examples:

Nicht schlecht. (statt: Toll gemacht!)Not bad.
instead of: Well done!

Er war nicht ehrlich zu dir. (statt: Er hat dich angelogen.)He wasn’t honest with you.
instead of: He lied to you.

See also: → Abschwächung/Untertreibung

Metapher

Metaphor – figurative expression

Metaphor compares two different things in a figurative sense. Unlike in a simile (A is like B), the word wie is not used in metaphor (A is B).

Example:

Nicht zuletzt durch Astronomie und Raumfahrt haben wir gelernt, dass wir nur ein Staubkorn in einem riesigen, größtenteils unerforschten Universum sind.*Not least through astronomy and space travel, we’ve learnt that we are only a speck of dust in a huge, largely unexplored universe.

See also: → Vergleich, Metonym, Allusion/Anspielung

* Source: speech by Federal Minister of Economics and Labour Wolfgang Clement at the opening of the World Conference of BfAI Correspondents on the subject “Global, more global, world champion exporter: how much international business is allowed?” August 30, 2004 in Berlin, Germany

Metonym

Metonymy – figurative expression, closely associated with the subject

Metonymy (unlike metaphor) is when we refer refer to a thing or concept by using the name of something that is closely associated with it in terms of place, time or background.

We often use metonymy in a political context:

Examples:

der Mauerfall am 9. November 1989The fall of the Wall on November 9, 1989 (der Mauerfall = downfall of the East German regime)

Bagdad wies den Vorwurf zurückBaghdad rejected the accusation (Bagdad = government, transitional government, authorities in the Iraq capital)

eine Erklärung des Weißen Hausesa statement from the White House (Weißes Haus = US government/president)

Note: The figurative expression is not a physical part of the subject, however (compare: Synecdoche).

See also: → Metapher, Synekdoche

Onomatopöia, Lautmalerie

Onomatopoeia – word imitating a sound

The pronunciation of the word reflects its sound. Onomatopoeia is used because it’s often difficult to describe sounds. Furthermore, a story becomes more lively and interesting with the use of onomatopoeia.

Examples:

Die Katze miaute kläglich.The cat meowed pitifully.

Sie hat eine piepsige Stimme.She has a squeaky voice.

Die Tür quietscht.The door creaks.

Parallelismus

Parallelism – parallel sentence/clause structure

Successive clauses or sentences are similarly structured. This similarity makes it easier for the reader/listener to concentrate on the message.

Examples:

Ich schlief und träumte, das Leben sei Freude. Ich erwachte und sah, das Leben war Pflicht. Ich handelte und siehe, die Pflicht ward Freude.I slept and dreamt that life was joy. I awoke and saw that life was service. I acted and behold, service was joy. (Rabindranath Tagore)

Vertrauen ist gut, Kontrolle ist besser.Trust is good, control is better.

Note: In written language, parallelism is a useful device for instructions. Due to the parallel structure, the reader can concentrate on the message and will immediately know what to do (see examples below).

• no parallelism:

Example 1:

Zuerst öffnest du das Buch.First you open the book.

Du musst jetzt den Text lesen.Now you have to read the text.

Sieh dir die Bilder an.Look at the pictures.

Die Fragen müssen beantwortet werden.The questions have to be answered.

• with parallelism:

Example 2:

Öffne das Buch.Open the book.

Lies den Text.Read the text.

Sieh dir die Bilder an.Look at the pictures.

Beantworte die Fragen.Answer the questions.

In Example 2, the sentences are all structured the same way, making the instructions clearer and more memorable.

Parenthese

Parenthesis – additional information

The flow of a sentence is interrupted by extra information or explanations set off by commas, brackets or dashes. The extra information can be a single word, a phrase or even an entire sentence.

Examples:

Als Exportland Nr. 1 sind wir – und vor allem unsere kleinen und mittleren Unternehmen – dringend auf Begleitung in den mitunter schwierigen Auslandsmärkten angewiesen.*As the number-one export land, we – and, above all, our small and medium-sized businesses – rely heavily on companionship in the occasionally difficult foreign markets.

* Source: speech by Federal Minister of Economics and Labour Wolfgang Clement at the opening of the World Conference of BfAI Correspondents on the subject “Global, more global, world champion exporter: how much international business is allowed?” August 30, 2004 in Berlin, Germany

Personifizierung

Personification – attribution of human characteristics to animals, inanimate objects or abstractions

Animals, inanimate objects or abstractions are represented as having human characteristics (behaviour, feelings, personality, etc.). Personification can make a narration more interesting and lively.

Examples:

Der Wind spielte mit ihren Haaren.The wind played with her hair.

Ich schloss die Tür und mein stures Auto weigerte sich, sie wieder zu öffnen.I closed the car door, and the stubborn thing refused to open again.

Die Frösche stimmten ihr Konzert an.The frogs were beginning their concert.

Erzählperspektive

Narrative Point of View – the narrator speaks in the first or third person

First-person narration – ich

The narrator tells the story from their point of view (ich). It is a limited point of view, as the reader can only know what the narrator knows (unreliable narrator). The advantage of first-person narration is that the narrator shares his/her personal experiences and secrets with the reader, thus immersing the reader in the story.

Example:

Joseph von Eichendorff: Aus dem Leben eines Taugenichts

Third-person narration – er/sie

The narrator is not part of the plot and tells the story in the third person (er, sie). Usually the narrator is all-knowing (omniscient narrator): they can jump from one scene to another, but can also focus on a single character from time to time.

Example:

Charles Dickens: Oliver Twist

The third-person narrator can also be a personal narrator (point of view of one character) who tells the story in the third person (er, sie), but only from the central character's point of view. This point of view is rarely used.

Example:

Michael Ende: Die unendliche Geschichte

Wiederholung

Repetition – repetition of words or phrases

Certain words or phrases are repeated throughout the text, in order to emphasise certain facts or ideas.

Example:

… Der ungelöste Nahost-Konflikt bedroht Sicherheit und Stabilität … Auch im Irak geht es um Stabilität für das Land und die Sicherheit einer ganzen Region. … es geht jetzt um die Frage, dass wir alle miteinander dafür verantwortlich sind, dass mehr an Stabilität in die Region kommt. … Wir tun das, damit die Menschen in diesem Land selbst für ihre eigene Sicherheit einstehen können.*… The unresolved Middle East conflict is threatening security and stability … In Iraq too, the issue is stability for the country and the security of the entire region … We all must take responsibility to bring more stability to the region … We’re doing this so that the people of that country can stand up for their own security.

* Source: Federal Chancellor Schröder at the opening of the Frankfurt Book Fair on October 5, 2004, in Frankfurt am Main, Germany

Rhetorische Frage

Rhetorical Questions – question without a direct answer

The author/speaker raises a question, but doesn’t answer it directly, as he/she considers the answer (usually yes or no) to be obvious.

Rhetorical questions are used to provoke, emphasise or argue.

Examples:

Sollte uns das nicht zu denken geben?Shouldn’t that make us think?

Und welch einen besseren Ort könnte es für eine solche Differenzierung und neue Betrachtung geben als eben diese Buchmesse? *And what better place for this kind of differentiation and new consideration than this very book fair?

See also: → Hypophora

* Source: Federal Chancellor Schröder, at the opening of the Frankfurt Book Fair on October 5, 2004, in Frankfurt am Main, Germany

Vergleich

Simile – direct comparison

Two things are compared directly by using “wie” (A ist wie B).

Other possibilities are, for example:

• A ist (nicht) wie BA is (not) like B
• A ist mehr/weniger als BA is more/less like B
• A ist genauso … wie BA is exactly … like B
• A ist vergleichbar mit BA is comparable to B
• A ist beinahe/fast wie BA is almost/nealry like B

Examples:

Online-Shops schießen wie Pilze aus dem Boden.Online shops are springing up like weeds.

Er war bleich wie der Tod.He was as pale as death.

Ich fühle mich wie das fünfte Rad am Wagen.I feel like a third wheel.

See also: → Metapher

Synekdoche

Synedoche – using a part instead of the whole or vice versa

Synecdoche is a kind of generalisation or specification that uses only a part, a member or a characteristic of what is meant. The following possibilities are common:

Part used instead of the whole

Examples:

pro-Kopf-Einkommen …income per head (head = person)

ein Gespräch unter vier Augena conversation “for four eyes only” (a private conversation; 4 eyes = 2 people)

Whole used instead of a part

Example:

Die Armee half der Bevölkerung bei der Bekämpfung der Flutkatastrophe.The army helped the citizens deal with the flood disaster. (army = soldiers)

Specific term used instead of a general one

Example:

Hast du mal ein Tempo?Do you have a Kleenex? (Tempo = popular tissue brand)

General term used instead of a specific one

Example:

Das Tier entfernte sich.The animal moved away. (animal = a specific animal, e.g. dog, dolphin, snake...)

Material used instead of the object

Example:

Sie trug Gold am Finger.She was wearing gold on her finger. (gold = a ring)

See also: → Metonym